Social Contraction vs. Ethical Egoism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Social Contraction vs. Ethical Egoism - Essay Example This theory also holds that it is alright to be this way; it is rational. However, in the real world, if everybody blindly followed their hearts desires then there would be chaos. To this situation, this theory calls for application of rationality from a different angle. This angle prescribes that people should cooperate with one another and cut down on the purely self serving pursuits. This aspect defines the social contract nature of this theory (Shafer-Landau 188). People will not live life to the fullest, but they will avoid a worse fate of being in constant upheaval with society. What constitutes upheaval? Economists answer this question through the hypothetical prisoner’s dilemma situation. In this situation, two individuals must undertake actions that are not beneficial to the other party. Since it is rational to do the best for ones self, then the individuals both undertake these actions knowing full well that the other party will suffer. In a life time, there are coun tless situations that mirror the conflicts in this hypothetical situation. Maximizing self interest as it turns out is not a worthwhile approach to life. People while be brutal indulging horrid actions just to stay ahead (Shafer-Landau 192). There will be no trust, hope or peace for those with the slightest urge to be â€Å"nice† hence the constant upheaval. ... These persons can range from parents at home to the government. Form this explanation; it is clear that cooperation needs more than one person. As such, this theory describes morality as a social phenomenon (Shafer-Landau 194). In the same way, this theory justifies the existence of moral laws; it justifies breaking these laws. It provides that, in the event, that cooperation fails then there is no need to uphold the moral laws. On the other hand, the theory justifies punishment of the law breakers. From this theory’s strengths, critiques derive dooming weaknesses. A moral theory has the duty to promote doing the right thing. However, this theory entertains the possibility of having a rational wrong for instance when a contract is void. Also, the approach of using rationality to justify action is lacking. As observed by Shafer-Landau (204) if the consequences of an unjust action are not as far reaching as the benefits, then it is rational to act unjustly. Much as, Hobbes tries to define rationality to co-exist with virtue, this is only possible in a world where justice prevails. In the event that the world is in a â€Å"natural state† (Hobbes description of anarchy), then being rational means survival for the fittest. A second theory that tries to define the extents of morality in regard to human behavior is ethical egoism. Ethical egoism describes how humans ought to act. Ethical egoism further asserts that moral duty should rely on doing actions that reflect best self interest. In doing so, one should not avoid actions that help others but is not under any obligation to pursue self interest in regard to the well being of others. Despite this radical stand, ethical egoism clearly states that self interest is not merely pleasure seeking.

Williams and Utilitarianism Essay Example for Free

Williams and Utilitarianism Essay In his critique of Utilitarianism, Williams finds fault in the Utilitarian commitment to maximum utility in that it undermines the integrity of moral agents and denies people the projects and relationships they inherently value. Famously known as his â€Å"Integrity Objection†, this proposition is immediately very enticing in that it appeals to the idea of the invaluable and imperative nature of benevolence and compassion, versus the cold, impartial hand of Utilitarianism. That is not to say, however, that Utilitarians have been dealt a hefty criticism from which they have no defense. While Williams may be correct in claiming that abandoning commitments or devaluing personal relationships may be counterintuitive, a Utilitarian could argue that his construction of â€Å"integrity† is equally counterintuitive in that it would require one to override their intrinsic pursuit of self- preservation. Additionally, if we were to presuppose Williams’ correctness, a Utilitarian could argue that the only plausible implementation of such a theory would mean valuing these emotional engagements above one’s own agency, a scenario even more demanding and sacrificial of one’s identity than the Utilitarian proposal. Williams directs this objection specifically toward Act-Utilitarianism, a branch of Utilitarian thought that deems the morally correct action as the one that produces the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people. He claims that such a theory is incompatible with the aspect of human happiness that is found in the commitment to personal projects and relationships: â€Å"Utilitarianism would do well then to acknowledge the evident fact that among the things that make people happy is not only making other people happy, but being taken up or involved in any of a vast range of projects. †1 While Utilitarians actually need lower order projects comprised of relationships and commitments in order to validate their higher order projects, the lower order projects will always serve the concerns of the first order. In turn, Williams asserts that such a compromise of emotional engagements for maximum utility usurps one’s sense of self, consequently marring the distinction between one’s commitment and one’s identity: â€Å"( ) that criterion would eliminate any desire at all which was not blankly and in the most straightforward sense egoistic. Thus we should be reduced to frankly egoistic first-order projects, and- for all essential purposes- the one second-order utilitarian project of maximally satisfying first-order projects. †2Abandoning certain commitments for the sake of another project can be acceptable, but when forced to relinquish those which a person deeply values, Williams argues they are robbed of â€Å"a sense of one’s moral identity† or what he describes as one’s integrity. Williams offers us two scenarios to further exemplify his theory: â€Å"Jim†, who is told by the edicts of utilitarianism to murder one innocent Amazon Indian in order to prevent twenty more being murdered, and â€Å"George†, a chemist who is (also by the parameters of Utilitarianism) forced to take a job creating weapons of mass destruction, since the balance-sheet of utilities shows that if George refuses, a far younger, more zealous chemist will carry the project along even further and more efficiently than George. While these scenarios may seem like far-fetched constructions meant to reveal Utilitarianism pursuing the wrong choice, Williams conversely (perhaps begrudgingly) admits that these would be the â€Å"right† choices for the given circumstances. The true problem, he argues, is 1? CITATION? 112? 2? CITATION? 113? ? that the emphasis should not simply be on the â€Å"rightness† of the action but the considerations involved in reaching that conclusion. This is a feature of Utilitarianism Williams claims â€Å"cuts out a consideration which for some others makes a difference to what they feel about such cases†. 3 He continues to explain that excluding such considerations denies our sense of personal accountability for our own actions and in turn â€Å"makes integrity as a value more or less intelligible†. 4 In sum, if we were to reduce William’s entire integrity objection to its most salient points, they would be the following: the emotional commitments that are incompatible with the parameters of Act- Utilitarianism are not only impossible to abandon entirely but are an integral facet of human happiness, therefore creating a dilemma for the Utilitarian in that they must allow for it. The potential defense of a Utilitarian to Williams’ objection begins with the examination of his construction of integrity, which he seems to define as one’s â€Å"sense of self†. Looking simply at this definition alone, it could be said that subjectivity suggested with this variety of integrity incorrectly presupposes that a person’s sense of their identity is always correct. Utilitarianism could make a claim for the value in assessing reality with the sort of impartiality that Williams’ rejects, seeing as if one is not being appraised objectively, their sense of self is entirely contingent on their own conception. More importantly, and the crux of the Utilitarian defense, is that while Williams’ is correct in his claim that abandoning these emotional entanglements is counterintuitive, maintaining such commitments are at odds with the human desire for self-preservation, a 3? CITATION? p99? 4? CITATION? p99? ? conflict that Utilitarianism not only recognizes but Williams does not offer any viable solution for. Based on his examples and criticisms of Utilitarianism, it could be inferred that Williams assumes that we have a moral obligation to help others in a time of crisis, that one has an inherent responsibility to compassion and benevolence. This is clearly in conflict with the Utilitarian theory that one’s responsibility is to maximum utility, so even if the Utilitarian were to concede to Williams objection, it would be implausible to imagine a scenario in which the two could be regarded as being of equal value. In turn, the only option available to maintaining this ethos of selflessness would be to regard it as superior to maximum utility. This, a Utilitarian could argue, could prove to be extremely problematic. Firstly, it is extremely unrealistic to assume that people have the capacity to function entirely out of selflessness. Even though benevolence and emotional attachment can provide a certain level of happiness and fulfillment to a person, the expectation to unilaterally value the welfare of others over our own is not only implausible but ultimately self-defeating. Abandoning or betraying commitments in order to further advance a larger more important agenda certainly isn’t an idea particular to Utilitarianism. A quick browse of a history textbook would support that, by and large, humans are inherently self-serving and while one may commit to an act, cause or person, it does not necessarily mean that they themselves aren’t using such relationships for their own agency. Utilitarianism may require that a person abandon a particular commitment for the sake of the greater good, but it can certainly be said that in the absence of utilitarianism, the commitment could be abandoned anyway, except in this case it would be for a self-serving purpose. A Utilitarian could potentially argue that their moral theory simply recognizes and curbs the inwardly focused desires of mankind and attempts to redirect such motivation toward the greater good. One could argue that Williams’ is somewhat disillusioned with mankind as he makes sweeping idealizations of the human psyche. Williams’ examples of â€Å"Jim† and â€Å"George† seem to both be contingent on the idea that what makes said examples disconcerting is premise that both men would be acting against their conscience, in turn making the assumption that all people have consciences that should be considered. Secondly, if one could clear the hurdle of the first argument, the actual implementation of such a theory is extremely difficult. Williams argues that Utilitarianism is far too demanding to be plausible but in fact, trading this impartiality for benevolence proves to be far more exhausting. Considering the world’s current state of affairs, there are always people in dire need of help, so one calls into question exactly what parameters would be set in place in order to orchestrate such a society. What would be the stipulations of a worthy recipient of another’s benevolence? If Williams was simply talking about people’s obligation to those close to them, valuing those relationships above maximum utility creates a bias that is even more incompatible with benevolence than Utilitarianism, which at least works in the interest of the entire population. A Utilitarian could also argue that it simply because they are outweighed by maximum utility does not mean that substantial relationships are not valued in Utilitarianism. While they are indeed lower order projects, a Utilitarian could make an argument that it is through maintaining such relationships that the value of one’s own welfare is realized and are only outweighed by serious interests of first order projects. The analyses above reflect the same conclusion. Williams’ objection brings to light shortcomings in Utilitarianism that are easily felt by those uncomfortable with the impartial and seemingly unfeeling Utilitarian mentality. However, the arguments put forth by Williams regarding the counterintuitive and overly demanding nature of impartiality neglect the similarly inherent and insatiable desire for self-preservation.

The Theme of Girl Power in Joy Luck Club and Taste of Honey :: Joy Luck Club Taste of Honey Amy Tan Essays

The Theme of Girl Power in Joy Luck Club and Taste of Honey Joy Luck Club and Taste of Honey Women’s rights is an issue of serious interest in much of today’s literature. As more women take the pen in hand more and more female characters take center stage in the stories they write. The newest term for this focus on the powerful heroine is called â€Å"Girl Power† and this strength of persona can be seen in two pieces of literature in particular. The Joy Luck Club, by Amy Tan, and A Taste of Honey, by Shelagh Delaney. In the Joy Luck Club Amy Tan write about the lives of four mother’s from China who pass their lives’ wisdom down to their daughters who are growing up on the foreign shores of California, USA. Each of these women have a story to tell about growing up in the patriarchal society of china, how they overcame the stifling environment they grew up in and how they survived and escaped to the â€Å"new world† as it were. The story of An Mei, Waverly Jong’s mother, is an excellent example of how women can take control of the situations that are forced upon them and make their lives better. In the novel An Mei is sold into a marriage at the age of four. At fifteen, on her wedding day she discovers she has been married to 13 year old boy, who no more wants to be a husband than he does a father. An Mei is forced to sleep on the floor and treated to the derisive comments and punishments of her mother in law when she fails to produce a child. However, over hearing a house servant who found herself pregnant, she devises a plan to escape her ill-fated life and out-trick her lying child-groom. She uses the superstitions of the traditional Chinese and her clever wit to win a ticket out of the loveless marriage and back to Shanghai with her family. This tale, re-told by An Mei, shows how woman, even in dire situations, can take charge of their lives and make the most of what they have. Rose Hsu Jordan is another one of Tan’s Characters that really takes charge of her life just when it seems she would be swallowed whole by a man’s world. In this present day tale, a young woman find herself married to man whose opinions she has grown to value above her own. She has forgotten how to value herself and fallen prey to the pitfall of pleasing her husband before taking care of her own needs.

My name is Iago Essay

I suppose I could be called the villain if this were a story. My hate of the Moor, both for that of Cassio, his lieutenant and that of himself, the ‘superior Moor’ have driven me to take my revenge. The ‘valiant moor’, as he is now known, in his worst decision that shall surely become his downfall, has passed me over for the role of his lieutenant and bestowed it instead upon Cassio, â€Å"that never set a squadron in the field† and made me â€Å"of whom his eyes had seen the proof†, his ancient, his sword-bearer. So instantly angered was I by this news that revenge was soon in the planning, and it was late last night when I began. Accompanied as I was by Roderigo, I began to plant in his mind the seedlings of my hate towards Othello, with first the new role of the ‘great arithmetician’ Michael Cassio and then the doomed affair between Othello and Desdemona. The poor fool Roderigo, intensely in love with Desdemona was very eager to inform her father of the sordid affair. Brabantio, needed no time to think, he awoke the house and guards and immediately after Othello. While my good Roderigo was unknowingly following my pre-ordained plan, I was with the Moor, attempting to inflame that black heart. Does the man (or lesser) have no honour? To find that his host of many times has turned against him and is insulting his honour would inflame any sane reasonable man, but Othello did not react. Even when the livid Brabantio appeared, Othello would not rise and be killed like he should have been. That Moor, he managed to win both Brabantio and then the Duke, when he should have been dead, and his trustworthy ancient in his position. It is all because of the Duke, and his worship of Othello that the Moor managed to escape from Brabantio’s fair accusation. If a man steals or uses drams or conjuration to steal away from her father a young maiden, it should be the father’s right to hunt down the dishonourable man and with all faith in the integrity of the court. I thought all was lost until the most ‘valiant moor’; Othello entrusted to me his dearest prize; Desdemona, to bear with me to Cyprus, where we once again shall have to fight those damned Ottomites. Roderigo, the pitiable man; ‘I will incontinently drown myself’ indeed. The poor fool, so madly in love with Desdemona, couldn’t see a way out of his condition, and if he had taken Death’s prescription, then I, Iago would be severely reduced, for without Roderigo’s finances, I would surely lose any sight of the task I have ahead. I have to excuse myself, for expending time with such a pitiable sight, even if for profit, is wasteful. Now I am glad that my first plan was foiled, for even if Othello had been struck down in a duel, Cassio would have been left, as an adversary. Now, in Cyprus, with both of these fools, it should be simple to take down both of them. â€Å"Cassio’s a proper man† so it will be harder to strike him down, the best way would be to continue as I am; to first shed doubt on his reputation with Othello, plant small things of uncertain credibility in the path of Cassio, who will, with his unshakeable loyalty take it immediately to the Moor who will, when the seeds of doubt have grown in his mind will surely begin to believe my small tale of falsification. Then, if I take every opportunity that passes, Othello will believe and be plagued by the tale till it is ever present in his mind, and acts, ending in death and the downfall of both the Moor and Michael Cassio.

Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument Essay

The organization I last worked with is an IT/ITES company, which is one of the fastest growing fortune 500 companies. The organization has a balanced out structure however there is a little dominance towards ‘The Market’. As per my experience I can say that the reason for this is that the organization is relatively young and striving to compete with the best in the industry. This requires leaders to be competitive and to an extent demanding. Also the employees are dedicated towards the company’s vision and hence strive to achieve the goals and targets set for them. Culture – Strong. People are focused on innovating and brainstorming towards ideas that the management can implement and improve their processes. The company is people oriented which in turn creates a high commitment level from the employees. The organization has leaders who are efficient and ensure smooth running of the company. The company is sensitive towards the clients and customers and goes an extra mile to deliver better than the expectations. This is the reason for them to be able to retain customers and get new businesses. Another fact that I am aware of is that the organization has not till date fired any employee unless in extreme ethical sensitive issues. An example of people being valued and everyone considered equal is that when I joined the company as a fresher some of my friends who ad joined along with me sent a mail to the CEO regarding a certain issue and got a reply from him with the action that would be taken. Since mostly the organizational structure is balanced out there is not much discrepancy. I would however like the company reduce its dominance in the Market style and according to me that will happen with time. Yes there is a cultural congruence and that is mainly because the company’s culture was same as my expectation.

Free Essays on Robert Browning

Robert Browning’s poem â€Å"My last Duchess† is spoken from the perspective of the Duke and conveys the Dukes personality through the literary form of a dramatic monologue. It involves a fictional account of the Duke addressing an envoy from the Count to talk of details for the hopeful marriage to the Count’s daughter. The subtitle of this monologue is â€Å"Ferrara,† which suggests an historical reference to Alfonso II, the fifth Duke of Ferrara in Italy in the mid-sixteenth century. The objective of the Duke is to attempt to sway the envoy’s opinion of himself to obtain the maximum dowry possible in pursuit of this marriage. The reader is directed to imagine the Duke walking with the envoy through his art gallery and the Duke stops to show him a painting of his last Duchess that is presently covered by a curtain. â€Å"Since none puts by / the curtain I have drawn for you, but I† (9-10). This curtain is the first reference to the Dukes selfish, jealous, and protective traits. The Duke uses the curtain as a method of controlling his wife, even after her death. Other men admiring her beauty was unacceptable, so by hiding the painting behind a curtain, he controls who is allowed to gaze upon her. â€Å"Sir, ‘twas not / her husband’s presence only, called that spot / of joy into the Duchess’ cheek† (13-15). The Duke mentions the blush on the cheek that the duchess has in the painting and assumes that Fr Pandolf, the painter, was attracted to the Duchess and possibly paid her a compliment. â€Å"Her mantle laps Over my lady’s wrist too much,’ or ‘Paint Must never hope to reproduce the faint Half-flush that dies along her throat.† (16-19) The Duke assumes that Fr Pandolf was most likely flirting with the Duchess and that she was flirting back with him. This demonstrates that the Duke was extremely jealous and could not stand to have his wife admired by other men. The Duke is not happy with the manner in w... Free Essays on Robert Browning Free Essays on Robert Browning Robert Browning’s poem â€Å"My last Duchess† is spoken from the perspective of the Duke and conveys the Dukes personality through the literary form of a dramatic monologue. It involves a fictional account of the Duke addressing an envoy from the Count to talk of details for the hopeful marriage to the Count’s daughter. The subtitle of this monologue is â€Å"Ferrara,† which suggests an historical reference to Alfonso II, the fifth Duke of Ferrara in Italy in the mid-sixteenth century. The objective of the Duke is to attempt to sway the envoy’s opinion of himself to obtain the maximum dowry possible in pursuit of this marriage. The reader is directed to imagine the Duke walking with the envoy through his art gallery and the Duke stops to show him a painting of his last Duchess that is presently covered by a curtain. â€Å"Since none puts by / the curtain I have drawn for you, but I† (9-10). This curtain is the first reference to the Dukes selfish, jealous, and protective traits. The Duke uses the curtain as a method of controlling his wife, even after her death. Other men admiring her beauty was unacceptable, so by hiding the painting behind a curtain, he controls who is allowed to gaze upon her. â€Å"Sir, ‘twas not / her husband’s presence only, called that spot / of joy into the Duchess’ cheek† (13-15). The Duke mentions the blush on the cheek that the duchess has in the painting and assumes that Fr Pandolf, the painter, was attracted to the Duchess and possibly paid her a compliment. â€Å"Her mantle laps Over my lady’s wrist too much,’ or ‘Paint Must never hope to reproduce the faint Half-flush that dies along her throat.† (16-19) The Duke assumes that Fr Pandolf was most likely flirting with the Duchess and that she was flirting back with him. This demonstrates that the Duke was extremely jealous and could not stand to have his wife admired by other men. The Duke is not happy with the manner in w...

The Official Language in America

The Official Language in America Free Online Research Papers Bilingual in education has sparked controversy all over the Nation. Teachers and parents both agree that the main goal in education is to master the English language. According the National Association for Bilingual Education, bilingual education seems to defy common sense. (NABE, 2004) If non-English-speaking students are isolated in foreign language classrooms, how are they to learn English? On the other hand, English Only advocates argue that any government recognition of minority languages may encourage non-English-speaking immigrants to believe they can live in America and never learn the English language conforming them to the American ways. In contrast, Stephen Krashen, a linguist at the University of Southern California, explains that bilingual education can be a crucial variable for many students learning English. By educating students in a language that can be understood, provides the knowledge and literacy needed as the student continues their educational goals. Gradually, English skills become more efficient while the key point is that language acquisition is a natural, developmental process that cannot be rushed.(Crawford, 1998) Bilingual in politics is not taken to a serious note by many. In fact, given that Americans are given the choice to learn a different language, many choose not to and display resentment towards those that are living in America and choose not to learn English. The politics in bilingualism may be considered an immigration issue. As author of the essay The Politics of Bilingualism, Corey Heller compares the Spanish language to the German language. A 16 year-old boy was suspended from school for speaking Spanish in the hallways. Mr. Heller voiced his opinion on the fact that if he spoke in the German language, the punishment would not have existed since the Germans are not associated with poverty, mass immigration and a decline in the prosperity of the U.S. (Heller, 2006) According to an article published by Josefina Tinajero, a professor of University of Texas, and a bilingual educator, the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) requires schools to use scientifically based research as a guide to all their programs, yet the principle only seems to apply when scientific findings are politically convenient and affordable. References: Crawford, J. (1998-99) Does bilingual ed work? Rethinking Schools Online. Retrieved on April, 2009 form http;/rethinkingschools.org/special_reports/bilingual/biside.shtml Heller, C. (2006) The politics of bilingualism. Bilingual/bicultural Family Network. Articles Essays. Retrieved April 30, 2009 from bicultrualfamily.org/apr06/politicsbilingualism.html NABE, (2005). Why is bilingual education controversial? Retrieved on April 30, 2009 from nabe.org/education/politics.html Tinajer, J. (2005) Bilingual education in texas. Lighting the path, leading the way. Language Learner. Pg 20 retrieved April 30, 2009 from elladvocates.org/documents/RCN/Tinajer.pdf Research Papers on The Official Language in AmericaQuebec and CanadaStandardized TestingHip-Hop is ArtComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoAssess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropeRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andPETSTEL analysis of IndiaAnalysis Of A Cosmetics Advertisement19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraMoral and Ethical Issues in Hiring New Employees

What to Do About Slime Flux (Bacterial Wetwood)

What to Do About Slime Flux (Bacterial Wetwood) Most everyone has seen these symptoms in a tree at some point: an oozing, weeping spot in the bark of the tree, often near a crotch or pruning scar, but sometimes just appearing randomly. The elm trees that line boulevards in many communities are a prime place to spot these wet, slimy weeping spots, but a number of other trees can also exhibit the symptoms.   Bacterial Wetwood or Slime Flux This familiar symptom is associated with  bacterial wetwood  or slime flux disease. This disease is  a major cause of rot in the trunks and branches of hardwood trees. Slime flux is caused by a bacterial infection in the inner sapwood and outer heartwood areas of the tree and is normally associated with wounding or environmental stress, or both. In elm trees, bacteria  Enterobacter cloacae  are the cause of slime flux,  but numerous other bacteria have been associated with this condition in other trees, such as willow, ash, maple, birch, hickory, beech, oak, sycamore, cherry, and yellow-poplar.  These similar bacteria include species of Clostridium, Bacillus, Klebsiella, and Pseudomonas. In an infected tree, these bacteria feed and grow inside a tree wound and they use tree sap as their favorite source of nutrients. Symptoms of Slime Flux A tree with slime flux disease has water-soaked patches and weeps from visible wounds and sometimes even from healthy-looking bark. The actual weeping from the patch may be a good sign, as it is allowing for a slow, natural draining of an infection that needs a dark, damp environment. In the same way  that an infection in an animal or person is relieved when the wound drains, a bole (trunk) infection in a tree is helped when drainage occurs. A tree with this form of bole rot is trying its best to compartmentalize the damage.​ The attacking bacteria in a slime flux infection alters wood cell walls, causing moisture content of the wood to increase to the point of injury.  Slime flux is identified by dark liquid streaks running vertically below an injury and a foul-smelling and slimy seepage running down the bark.  Chemically, the weeping liquid is actually fermented sap, which is alcohol-based and toxic to new wood.   Treatment for Slime Flux Disease For many years, experts advised that  holes drilled in a tree could allow gases and liquids to drain from an area of slime flux rot. More recently, several United States Forest Service reports advise against this practice. It is now thought to further spread the bacteria.  There is still some debate about this practice, but the consensus now is to refrain from drilling holes.   In reality, there are no active measures to effectively treat the bole rot caused by slime flux disease. As determined by the late Dr. Alex Shigos research, the best current advice is to maintain the trees overall health so that the tree can isolate the spot and grow good wood around the diseased portion. Affected trees will usually overcome the problem themselves and seal off the damage. Avoid Insecticide Use Another common treatment that really has no benefit is the use of insecticides applied in the hopes of preventing the rot from spreading within the tree. The impetus to trying this treatment stems from people noticing insects feeding on the rot. It should be remembered, however, that the insects have not caused the disease nor do they spread it. There is even some opinion that by removing the decaying wood, insects may actually help the tree. Spraying for insects in an effort to cure slime flux is a waste of money and may actually perpetuate slime flux disease.   Preventing Slime Flux Disease The basic control for slime flux disease is prevention. Avoid wounding the tree and make sure to plant trees in locations where there are no stresses from urban soil compaction, such as walking and vehicle traffic. Trim away broken, torn branches promptly.   Remember that a healthy tree will usually overcome slime flux. If you keep your trees healthy in other ways, they almost certainly will overcome a bout of slime flux disease.

Arbitration Law Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Arbitration Law - Assignment Example First the seat of the arbitration3 should be in England or any other country signatory to Convention on the Settlement of Investment Disputes between States and Nationals of Other States, or Panama Conventions to ensure enforcement of arbitral awards.4 The seat should, as far as possible, be outside jurisdictions  known for judicial interference. For example, the Argentine Supreme Court, in June 2004 Cartellone decision,5 held that waivers were invalid when issues of public policy are at stake.6 Secondly, the clause should include a commitment by the company to resolve disputes through arbitration such that rights and duties of each party cannot be determined by a unilateral action of the host state. With regards to the laws applicable, article 4(2) of ICSID convention gives the parties autonomy to decide the law that is applicable to them, whether national law or international law. Article 4(2) requires an ICSID tribunal, in the absence of agreement by the parties on applicable la w, to apply laws that are applicable in the state party that is a party to the dispute, and rules of international law that are applicable. In AIG Capital Partners Inc. v. ... The scope8 of the clause should be wide and cover all the possible disputes that are likely to arise from the contract. With regards to an arbitral tribunal,9 TLG should advocate for an institutional rather than ad hoc one. Most importantly, the government of Languada should expressly waive its immunity with regards to both jurisdiction and execution of the arbitral award. Enforcement proceeding against assets of state owned companies may implicate issues under state and foreign law. Moreover, they should structure the clause so as to gain access to the arbitral jurisdiction established by international investment treaties.10 In conclusion, TLG should consider including the model clause proposed by ICSID or any other international body such as ACICA.11 Word count: 475 References. Arbitration Act 1996 s 1(c)Arbitration Act 1996 s 3 Arbitration Act 1996 s 3 Arbitration Act s 15 Case law GSS Group v. National Port Authority Civil Action No. 09-1322 (PLF) (D.D.C. Mar. 2011. AIG Capital P artners Inc. v. Republic of Kazakhstan. Internet Sources Applicable Law in Investor-State Arbitration, http://www.arbitration-icca.org/media/0/12112009316810/applicable_law_in_investor-state_arbitration.doc (accessed March 19, 2012). Asit Ranjan Mishra, Mint, New Delhi. India rejects investor-state clause in FTA with EU. July 4. Sierra club of Canada. http://www.sierraclub.ca/en/main-page/india-rejects-investor-state-clause-fta-eu( Accessed 19t march 2011) Others Bishop R, Crawford J & Riesman M. cases. Foreign investment disputes: cases, materials, and commentary.(Kluwer Law International. 2005 Dugan, C. Enforcement Against Assets of State-owned Companies. (September 2009). Dugan C, Rubin, N, Wallace D, & Sabahi, B. Investor-state Arbitration. (Cambridge University

Data security Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Data security - Essay Example The given report will highlight some examples of what problems data loss may cause to a company, as well as outline the major reasons of the problem. In addition, in order for us to be able to manage the problem, the most effective ways of preventing data loss and increasing data security of an organization will be presented. The data loss issue may be related to any aspect of organizational performance – from making some sensitive information about company’s clients available to others, up to the rival’s getting some strategic and confident information about a competitor. These were just a few examples of what a data loss means. KPMG reports that 92 million people around the world have been affected by data loss incidents in 2008, and predicts the number to rise up to 190 million in 2009 (KPMG Europe LLP, 2009). The outcomes may be horrible, and range from company’s reputation being spoiled, to both corporate and individual financial losses. Regarding this matter Reto Gallati (2003: 294) outlines that loosing a reputation and a good name is one of the worst losses a company may suffer since a positive reputation is one of the most valued assets of an organization. Besides: However, nowadays an organization cannot function without digital devices. According to Tipton and Krause (2007: 1294), out of the companies that faced a serious data loss, ‘43 percent never reopen, 51 percent reopen but close within 2 years’. So, since we cannot avoid using electronic data storage devices, we must find the ways of coping with the risk of data loss. First of all, let’s take a look at the data loss incidents – they can be related to either software or hardware. Boston Computing Network (2009) reports that 42% of data loss cases in Europe take place due to hardware problems, such as power surge damage, and drive, controller or CPU failure. On the second place stand human errors (31%), such as accidental

Economist & Nobel Laureate Paul Krugman Term Paper

Economist & Nobel Laureate Paul Krugman - Term Paper Example In addition, that  economics is ever changing, not stagnant. He has applied increasing returns theory to international trade and geographic clustering (Krugman and Helpman p.84).  Ã‚   Professional Profile He is acknowledged worldwide as a leader in the fields of  economic geography  and the role of increasing returns in shaping  international trade.  At MIT, he became the Ford International Professor of Economics. He has been a professor of Economics and International Affairs in Woodrow Wilson School, Princeton University, and currently with Princeton (New York Times). He is a Fellow of the Econometric Society, a Research Associate of the National Bureau of Economic Research, and a member of the Group of Thirty. He has also worked as an advisor to the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the United Nations, and to a number of countries such as Portugal and Philippines (Speakers of Substance ). Recently, he was President of th e Eastern Economic Association and a centenary professor at the London School of Economics. Krugman is also the author and editor of about 18 books and over 200 professional journal articles, mostly on international trade and finance. ... 08 he won Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for amplification on models of  international trade  and the geographical concentration of wealth, by probing the effects of  economies of scale  and of consumer preferences for varied goods and services. Furthermore, in recognition of his work, he received the John Bates Clark Medal from the American Economic Association, an award given every two years to the top economist under the age of 40.Paul Krugman was awarded the  2011 Gerald Loeb Award  for Commentary for his "Paul Krugman Columns" in the  New York Times (New York Times). Amongst other Krugman’s credentials include, in 2011 he was among the top 50 influential individuals in global finance and Foreign Policy’s  Top 100 Global Thinkers 2010 and 2009. In 1992, he was a member to a team of economist on international appointed by President Reagan to deal with the recession New Trade Theory His professional repute is largely owed to his work in inte rnational trade and finance; he is the initiator of the "new trade theory," a major rethinking of the theory of international trade (Krugman p.286, 1994). New Trade Theory by Paul Krugman brings the determinants of comparative advantage into the model. This theory seeks to explain trade between comparable countries was projected in a 1979 paper in the  Journal of International Economics. It is based on two assumptions economies of scale and consumer’s preference for diversity of products. New Trade theory took into consideration the transportation costs, which was the source of the home market effect (Krugman 109-116, 1997). This implies that due to economies of scale countries specialize in production of specific products. Moreover, despite a country having no comparative advantage in trade it may be in a

Honey & Honey Products Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Honey & Honey Products - Research Paper Example The popularly used model is AIDA model, which includes four stages, namely awareness, interest, desire and action. These four stages occur when a consumer is confronted with some form of advertisement. Honey and Honey Products are basically in their introduction phase. This provides a good opportunity for the honey company to make a long-term impression on their consumer’s mind through positive brand building activities. Advertising and media relations will focus on building awareness and long-term relationship with consumers, while sales promotions and direct marketing activities will help in generating sales and revenues. Advertisement will consist of print, television and outdoor advertisements. Print advertisement will be included in popular cooking and home magazines, targeting women. Television advertisement will include a 30 second ad, which will be featured during prime time on popular local channels. The ad will be a combination of testimonies as well as information, where features and USP of the products and brand will be discussed. Outdoor advertisement includes billboards and flyers of Honey and Honey Products at different strategic places, such as, malls, shopping centres, food market as well as health and fitness gyms. According to the diagram above, it is evident that advertisement plays a significant role during initial stages of consumer decision making, i.e. awareness and interest. Also, good and effective advertisement will help in establishing positive brand equity and brand recognition. Public relation tools will be used for the publicity of new products. It will help in placing products among target consumers through press and media, thereby increasing consumer awareness and knowledge about Honey and Honey Products. Another strategy adopted by the company is customer satisfaction through 24x7 phone lines. This will not only solve

Marketing Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Marketing - Research Paper Example Research Question 1. Which opportunities are available to Skype in the Voice-Over-Internet Calls market? Skype is a company that can benefit from this the market research question. First, the company must identify the problem and opportunities affecting its marketing actions. This will enable Skype make appropriate decisions. An opportunity is a factor in the market that ensures that there are improvements in performance, or one that restores the previous state of activities. It is important to note that a problem is anything that affects the capability of a company to achieve their goals and objectives. Identifying the problem may involve assessing the explanation as to why the organization is not making profits as expected. In the market, a problem may be transformed into an opportunity. Further, an opportunity presents to the company a chance to make adjustments over their performance (Mohr, Sengupta & Slater, 2009). The first approach in dealing with the research question is to i dentify the problem or opportunity. However, before a problem is discovered, information must first be generated. For instance, the main problem to Sky is in the nature of competition experienced in the market because there are several other competitors offering similar services and brands. The problem is necessary because in the modern market, consumer attitudes normally influence the marketing behavior of a company. The information concerning consumer attitudes will be beneficial to Skype’s management be aware of the problem or any impending problem that might affect their business in the future. In addition, opportunities may depend on the availability of information of what the consumers expect of the products and services of Skype. This information may be obtained by conducting an online survey, the respondents being a sample of Skype users. Most organizations, including Skype, would be pleased to learn that consumers are displeased by a certain competitor’s new p olicy or quality of their services. This information is necessary since it enables the company to produce products and services that are affordable and are of high quality to customers (Bradley, 2007). Once the problems and opportunities have been identified, the company must do thorough analysis to establish the nature of the problems. After the analysis has been done, the companies can then go ahead and develop possible alternatives to the problem. In most cases, the main symptoms to the problem are identified, however, there may be other problems leading to the symptoms. Problem identification and analysis is important since it enables Skype to get ahead of competition by meeting consumer demands. The company has been able to come up with cost friendly service that enables consumers to make free calls over the internet ((Mohr, Sengupta & Slater, 2009). The next approach in dealing with the research question will be to assess the internal operations of the company for example by f ocusing on its website design. The problem, in this case, may be originating from within the company which makes it possible to survey the internal market consisting of employees. The information generated in the market should be used to asses internal operation, for instance, to determine whether the organization is producing products and serv

Marketing case study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Marketing case study - Essay Example The report will also touch upon the company’s use of digital marketing and will discuss in detail the marketing mix of the company. 2.0 Environmental Factors: One of the most effective manners of discovering the environmental factors that impact a business is to run a PEST analysis for the company. The PEST analysis details four important external factors that impact a business (Jobber, 2009). These include the political, economical, social and technological factors (Kotler, Kotler on Marketing: How to Create, Win, and Dominate Markets , 1999). Analysing these factors provide a chance to gain a clear idea of the various external factors impacting the strategies and marketing of the business. 2.1 Burberry’s PEST In terms of the political factors, it is seen that Burberry is faced with issues in terms of the overall competition and also in terms of the various industry specific rules and regulations as well as the inter country attitudes and relationships. The competitive regulations that the company faces is also high. Considering the economical factors, it is clear that the company is a luxury brand for people across the world. With the high levels of recession being faced by economies across the world, it is clear that the company’s marketing attempts are also impacted. Firstly, the company’s products like a Burberry Prorsum cropped leather aviator jacket costs anywhere between GBP 800 to GBP 2000. It is evident that the company is more of luxury fashion. With the recession being faced in the current times, the company has clearly recorded a number of losses in various countries. This clearly has a major impact on the amount that the company can invest into the marketing efforts in the markets (Kotler P. , Keller, Koshy, & Jha, 2009). In terms of the social factors, it is evident that the prices have had a major impact on the overall spending of the customers on the designer clothing. It is clear that the company has made a major im pact on several people and the customer loyalty leads people to save money and sacrifice on holidays to buy the designer clothing. This clearly provides the company with a strong chance to spend on their marketing efforts to target these customers in particular (Jobber, 2009). Finally, the technological factors have had a major role in the overall success of the company’s marketing efforts. With the newer technology and better tools for marketing the company has been able to effectively utilise these tools and to target the markets more effectively. On the whole the company’s marketing is affected greatly by the economical, social and technological factors to a great extent. It is clear that the company clearly has a strong marketing strategy currently which takes into account all of these factors. 3.0 Market Segmentation: Market segmentation is a crucial part of all marketing strategies and to a great extent impacts the overall business to a great extent (Evans, Foxal l, & Jamal, 2009). Market segmentation allows the company to group customers into different groups with similar needs and also groups to determine how to serve each group (Jobber, 2009). Here the main aim is to identify the needs of the customers and to effectively

Marketing Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Marketing - Research Paper Example Research Question 1. Which opportunities are available to Skype in the Voice-Over-Internet Calls market? Skype is a company that can benefit from this the market research question. First, the company must identify the problem and opportunities affecting its marketing actions. This will enable Skype make appropriate decisions. An opportunity is a factor in the market that ensures that there are improvements in performance, or one that restores the previous state of activities. It is important to note that a problem is anything that affects the capability of a company to achieve their goals and objectives. Identifying the problem may involve assessing the explanation as to why the organization is not making profits as expected. In the market, a problem may be transformed into an opportunity. Further, an opportunity presents to the company a chance to make adjustments over their performance (Mohr, Sengupta & Slater, 2009). The first approach in dealing with the research question is to i dentify the problem or opportunity. However, before a problem is discovered, information must first be generated. For instance, the main problem to Sky is in the nature of competition experienced in the market because there are several other competitors offering similar services and brands. The problem is necessary because in the modern market, consumer attitudes normally influence the marketing behavior of a company. The information concerning consumer attitudes will be beneficial to Skype’s management be aware of the problem or any impending problem that might affect their business in the future. In addition, opportunities may depend on the availability of information of what the consumers expect of the products and services of Skype. This information may be obtained by conducting an online survey, the respondents being a sample of Skype users. Most organizations, including Skype, would be pleased to learn that consumers are displeased by a certain competitor’s new p olicy or quality of their services. This information is necessary since it enables the company to produce products and services that are affordable and are of high quality to customers (Bradley, 2007). Once the problems and opportunities have been identified, the company must do thorough analysis to establish the nature of the problems. After the analysis has been done, the companies can then go ahead and develop possible alternatives to the problem. In most cases, the main symptoms to the problem are identified, however, there may be other problems leading to the symptoms. Problem identification and analysis is important since it enables Skype to get ahead of competition by meeting consumer demands. The company has been able to come up with cost friendly service that enables consumers to make free calls over the internet ((Mohr, Sengupta & Slater, 2009). The next approach in dealing with the research question will be to assess the internal operations of the company for example by f ocusing on its website design. The problem, in this case, may be originating from within the company which makes it possible to survey the internal market consisting of employees. The information generated in the market should be used to asses internal operation, for instance, to determine whether the organization is producing products and serv

The Expectations for 2062 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Expectations for 2062 - Essay Example This essay approves that phones would never be the same, there will be no touch screens, phones will come with sensors again detecting what is going on in the mind of the user, it will send a message to the people who the user wants to interact with. The phones will also come with an anti-spam policy which would restrict the users from using blasphemous language and posting crude stuff over the internet. Cars would change too, there would be no drivers required to drive the cars. It would be auto-driven and equipped with all the safety measures so as to avoid fatal accidents. This paper declares that ambulances would have separate lanes so as to reach patients quickly; there would be an alarm in each house which would trigger itself upon detecting unrest. For instance, the alarm would trigger itself if someone is trying to rob a house and the nearest police station would be informed automatically, the alarm would trigger itself should anyone require medical assistance and an ambulance would arrive within no time to assist the patient. Such sophisticated systems would become a reality in 2026. People who die of hunger would never die of it in 2026; the world would become self sufficient which it sadly is not now. There would be no nuclear weapons because the world would not require it. To conclude it is fair to say that 2026 will bring about some unimaginable changes, technology is bound to get even better in the coming years. Most other things would also get better when the technology becomes better.

The Secret to Creation Essay Example for Free

The Secret to Creation Essay The famous genius, scholar, and life scientist Victor Frankenstein already died shortly after he was rescued by Captain Robert Walton in the middle of North Pole. The remains of Dr. Frankenstein lie at his wake inside the ship of Capt. Walton. It is reported that during the wake of the famous life scientist, a creature was seen by Capt. Walton. The said creature is believed to be made by Dr. Frankenstein himself as an effort to discover the secret of creation of living things. The creature is greenish in color, eight-feet tall, resembles the feature of a human, but is extremely hideous in appearance. It told Capt. Walton of the remorse and solitude that he felt upon his creator’s death. The monster went to the North Pole and planned to kill himself because, according to him, he is of no value anymore. Capt. Walton retold Dr. Frankenstein’s account to the local investigator and attested that the culprit in the past murders that happened in the Frankenstein’s family is the monster Surname 2 itself. The death of Dr. Frankenstein’s brother, William Frankenstein,in Geneva, the death of Dr. Frankenstein’s best friend, Henry Clerval, and the death of Elizabeth Frankenstein, wife of Dr. Frankenstein, are done by the monster out of anger towards his creator. Because of the deaths of his loved ones, Dr. Frankenstein followed the monster that he created to get his revenge. However, Dr. Frankenstein was trapped in the floating iceberg where he was rescued by Capt. Walton. Dr. Frankenstein grew up at Geneva and studied natural philosophy and chemistry at Ingoldstadt University. He pursued on researching the secret of life and was successful in finding out how the main element that gives life to a person. He completed his research by creating a monster in his apartment one evening. Unfortunately, Dr. Frankenstein wasn’t able to pass the knowledge about the secret of life that he discovered. Upon his death, this secret will be buried with him and will continue to be a mystery in the human race.

All the Kings Men: Historys Importance :: All the Kings Men Essays

All the King's Men: History's Importance Throughout All the King's Men, history plays an important role in the motivations and lives of all the characters. History's importance is most noticeable, not surprisingly, in the story main characters - Willie Stark and Jack Burden - whose lives focus on and, in some cases, depend upon history and how they relate themselves to it. While Willie Stark views history as a tool with which to manipulate people for his own ends, an attitude resulting in his own destruction, Jack Burden's view of history changes over time and eventually allows him to accept his relationship to the past and, therefore, present. Since each man has such a differing view it is no wonder that history becomes important to each in different ways. Willie Stark must support his entire empire in a world of enemies and corruption, to do this he relies on the past to provide him with the foundation. "Dirt's a funny thing," the Boss said. "Come to think of it, there ain't a thing but dirt on this God's green globe except what's under water, and that's dirt too. It's dirt makes the grass grow. A diamond ain't a thing in the world but a piece of dirt that got awful hot. God-a-Mighty picked up a handful of dirt and blew on it and made you and me and George Washington and mankind blessed in faculty and apprehension. It all depends on what you do with the dirt."1 In this case, Stark is referring to the past as dirt - something to be used in many ways. The way he chooses to use it of course is as blackmail; "Then he would lean suddenly forward, at the man, and say, not slow and easy now, `God damn you, do you know what I can do to you?' And he could too. For he had the goods."2 Thus history is important to Stark as the device by which he maintains power. Both Stark and Burden use history differently according to the way it figures into their lives. To Stark, ultimate power being paramount, history is a thing to be used in the manipulation of others to

Mainstreaming Disabled Students Essay -- Teaching Education Inclusion

Mainstreaming Disabled Students According to the Curry School of Education, approximately 80% of students with learning disabilities receive the majority of their instruction in the general classroom (â€Å"Inclusion.† http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/curry/dept/cise/ose.html. 10 Oct. 1999). That number is expected to rise as teachers and parents become aware of the benefits of inclusion. Because there are so many disabled students in regular schools, it is important to look at whether or not mainstreaming is necessary for their education. For parents, having their disabled children mainstreamed into regular education can be a difficult choice. Although disabled children’s education can be more challenging in regular schools, the benefits of inclusion include enhanced self-esteem, development of social skills, and exposure to regular curriculum. Many people believe mainstreaming only helps disabled children, but there are many challenges that hurt their education rather than help. Both faculty and students can be cruel to disabled students. Because they are not used to interacting with disabled children, faculty and students may be uncomfortable with the situation and be insensitive to the disabled children. By ignoring the disabled children or treating them badly, the children will lose self-esteem and may disrupt the class in order to show their unhappiness. Some teachers are not familiar with teaching disabled children, so the education is lacking for the children....

“Hot” Spots in the Cold War Essay

The period of the Cold War has turned into the dramatic stage of fight between the two world’s largest powers – the United States and the U. S. S. R. The Cold War remains a remarkable moment for the U. S. , when the majority of the American people could check their strength and endurance. It did not matter whether the U. S. was promoting the politics of Soviet Containment, or was involved into Cuban Missile Crisis, whether the U. S. was flooded with McCarthyism ideas, or was building Levittown to restore the American dream – all those actions were later included into the set of events under the general title The Cold War. â€Å"Containment of the Soviet Union became American policy in the postwar years† (Stanley 11). It is interesting to note, that while the U. S. was fighting against fascism and took the Soviet Union as its ally, all anti-communism ambitions were neutralized or simply muted. The Cold War has started immediately after the end of the WWII and raised numerous issues in the political relations between the two super-states. The idea of political containment belonged to George Kennan: in his article published in 1946, he discussed and evaluated the sense of insecurity the U. S. S. R. traditionally experienced (Stanley 8). As a result, the discussed insecurity sense made it possible for Kennan to suggest that â€Å"Moscow’s pressure to expand its power had to be stopped through â€Å"firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies† (Stanley 18). On the one hand, the policy of Soviet Containment supported by Truman was the means to protect the U. S. territory from external military threats. On the other hand, Truman has evidently overstated the threat coming from the Soviet Union. As a result, the policy of containment has generated mass anti-communism which sometimes bordered with hysteria. Consequentially, the United States containment policies gave rise to the well-known McCarthyism and were also displayed in the U. S. involvement into the Cuban Missile Crisis. â€Å"McCarthyism is a term describing the intense anti-communist suspicion in the United States in the period that lasted roughly from the late 1940s to the late 1950s† (Stanley 24). This term has for long been connected with the name of Senator Joseph McCarthy, but it has currently expanded its meaning to more general definition of anti-communist policies in the U. S. Joseph McCarthy has actually been the initiator of the discussed policy which later turned into the whole cultural phenomenon. In his speech on February 9, 1950, he announced that he had â€Å"a list of 205 – a list of names that were made known to the Secretary of State as being members of the Communist Party† (Stanley 25). McCarthy’s speech and ideas were later reflected in the invention of loyalty-security reviews, blacklists, and even arrests. As a result of mass anti-communist campaigns, twelve thousand people lost their jobs without any hope to find new employment: negative loyalty reviews made it impossible for a person to become employed (Zinn 411). In reality, such policies could eventually turn into a â€Å"hot war† and have involved the United States into the actions which made the threat of the nuclear war as close as never before. The realization came with the events which were later called The Cuban Missile Crisis. The Cuban Missile Crisis was one of the critical hotspots in the history of the Cold War. Its origins were rooted in both Containment and McCarthyism policies, and supported the line of opposition towards the Soviet power. In 1962 the Soviet Union was searching the means of strengthening its position on the international political arena. The Soviets could achieve that aim only by strengthening their military potential (Stanley 32). As Khrushev wanted to place the Soviet missiles in Cuba, Fidel Castro was looking for the ways of protecting his country from the U. S. intervention. However, Kennedy was aware of the Soviet and Cuban plans: â€Å"On October 22, Kennedy announced the discovery of the missile installations to the public and his decision to quarantine the island. He also proclaimed that any nuclear missile launched from Cuba would be regarded as an attack on the United States by the Soviet Union† (Stanley 33). In order to eliminate the threat of military conflicts between the U. S. and Cuba, the Soviet Union had to refuse from the idea to locate their missiles on the Cuban territory. As the country found itself in the whirl of political and military conflicts, the common people had to restore the country after the WWII, and had to prove to themselves that they were able to survive the difficulties of the Cold War. Levittown has become the brightest display of how people were trying to improve their living even under the pressure of McCarthyism and Containment. In 1950s, William Levitt actually created the prototype of a middle-class American suburb: small, convenient and cozy houses for medium families have attracted attention of numerous architects and economists. By the time the town was completed, it included buildings, swimming-pools, schools, churches, 17,000 single-family houses, and occupied 5500 acres of Bucks County in Pennsylvania (Zinn 407). However, the historical meaning of Levittown was not in the way it was constructed, but in the time period during which it was created. Levittown has given the rise to creating affordable housing and has served the pattern of non-compliance with the principles of the Cold War. In his town, Levitt was able to â€Å"present a new form of ideal American life, one that combined the idealized middle-class life of the prewar suburban communities, with the democratized life of younger GIs and their families† (Zinn 409). Works Cited Stanley, George Edward. America and the Cold War (1949-1969). A Primary Source of History of the United States. World Almanac Books, 2005. Zinn, H. People’s History of the United States: 1492 to Present. Harper Perennial modern Classics, 2005.

12 Angry Men Movie Analysis Essay

After the jurors go to the meeting room to discuss and arrive at consensus whether the young boy is guilty or not, we get to see different personalities combined to form a group to resolve the issue. Initially 11 out of 12 jurors voted in favour of boy being guilty. Therefore, first prominent thing I noticed was that there was lack of conviction about the criticality of the issue. People had already formed their judgement before they stepped into the meeting room. They believed the testimonies of several eyewitnesses and the arguments of the prosecutor leading to the conclusion that the boy was guilty. In the beginning, 11 out of 12 jurors were not sensitive about the seriousness of the decision they were going to make and the impact it was going to have on the young boy’s life. They were not ready to waste any time over discussing that issue because they had already perceived the young boy guilty based on his background and crimes he committed before as well as the jurorsâ₠¬â„¢ previous experiences in life. See more:  Manifest Destiny essay When the protagonist in the movie showed opposition to agree the boy’s guilt, then the rest of the people became frustrated since they had to come to consensus to give a judgement. This showed the conviction and thoughtfulness of the protagonist to the criticality of their objective as jurors. It was also evident that being a minority does not mean you have to go majority’s way under the influence or pressure of majority against your wish. After listening to the protagonist, juror started changing their original guilty decision one by one. This showed their willingness to change their stance having been convinced by the protagonist’s logic. Protagonist stuck to the practicality of the situation and logic in order to bring the possible flaws in the testimonies of the eye witnesses by reproducing the situations and verifying the possibility of authenticity of the testimony. In doing so, he influenced the members of the group that there are lacunae in the testimonies, and the benefit of doubt needs to be given to the boy when it is a matter of his life and death. The various people in the group started applying their mind and making sense of the possible flaws in the testimonies. Many started to pitch in their ideas and the protagonist was listening to them all and using them to strengthen his hypothesis of uncertainty about boy being guilty. Now they started utilizing the resources in the group to make the most informed decision. The group dynamics was at work the best. They were supplementing each other’s logic by their own logic in order to make a conclusion of the veracity of the evidence and its testimony. There were a couple of aggressive people in the group. When one of them lashed out at the old man in the group, another person intervened and warned him not to repeat insulting behaviour. Thus, along the way the group stated forming norms about the behaviour in the group. Also, when one man changed his judgement just for the sake of it in order to come to consensus sooner than later, then another person made it a point to him by saying that he needed to present his logic for changing his decision and he did not want to accept his ‘yes’ or ‘no’ just for the sake of it. Some people engaged themselves in social loafing without regard to the seriousness of the objective; they were reminded of the objective by others. Last person — son left so he was seeing his son in the young boy. 12 Angry Men Movie Analysis Essay Introduction: This movie analysis will focus on the movie 12 Angry Men. There will be comparisons between the movie and the different negotiation tactics used in the movie and even in class. There were lessons learned from this movie and it gave new ways of thinking. This movie does a great job of using negotiation to win over a case when you are the odd man out. Summary: This movie focuses on a jury deliberating a first-degree murder charge on an eighteen year old boy. The boy is accused of stabbing his father to death. If found guilty of the charges, the eighteen year old boy will face the death sentence. There are many reasons as to why the boy looks guilty. He has a weak alibi, he claims to have lost the knife he bought, which was the same knife found at the murder scene, and there are witness’s saying they either saw the killing or saw the boy leaving the apartment. Out of the twelve jurors, eleven of them think the boy is guilty, except one. This is juror number eight. He claims he just does not know if the boy is guilty or not guilty, and wants to talk. The entire juror’s quickly begin naming all the reasons why the boy is guilty. For each reason, juror number eight questions each reasoning the other jurors bring up. He states a lot in the movie â€Å"is it possible?† This question starts to put doubt in the other juror’s minds about the boys’ guilt. Also with the ongoing deliberation, the jurors are starting to learn more about themselves and their personalities and this is causing them to vote â€Å"not guiltyâ€Å". Some realize they are prejudice or are holding grudges, or they are simply voting guilty because of their backgrounds. With each reason and deliberation, juror number eight continues to attempt to convince the other jurors that voting â€Å"not guilty† may not actually be correct. Juror eight is hesitant about sending a boy to die without talking about it first. He does think that from the trial the boy is guilty, but he’s just not too sure about it. He remains calm throughout the whole deliberation. The only time he shows signs of anger is when two other jury members start playing tic-tac-toe. This bothers him because everyone should be paying attention to what is going on and not playing games. He questions every incident with â€Å"Is it possible?† The best negotiators spend time asking questions, staying curious, and uncovering the other side’s views of the situation, facts, interests, and priorities. Throughout the deliberation, he uncovers information never presented at the trial, and helps the other jurors to think that it just may not be possible the boy could be guilty. Characters & Personalities: Each character in the movie has a different personality about them which influences their decision on the verdict and they each express their own opinions based on their characteristics. Each juror plays a part in the movie where their personalities reflect back on a certain argument in the case. Juror one (Martin Balsam) is also known as the foreman of the group. He is put in charge to run the deliberation between all of the jurors. He likes that he has authority to run the group, but isn’t very assertive in doing so. Juror two (John Fiedler) is quiet and goes along with what everyone else says. He changes his vote early, though, to not guilty. He mentions about the height difference between the father and the boy, and how the boy would go about stabbing him. Juror three (Lee J. Cobb) is the angry member of the group. He is convinced the boy is guilty no matter what anyone says. He sees no point in discussing the boy’s innocence. There comes a time in the movie where he discusses that when his son was fifteen, he got in a fight with him and his son hit him. He hasn’t seen his son ever since. Juror three is angry with his son for his actions and for leaving, that he is taking out this anger on the boy in trial. Juror four (E.G. Marshall) is very convinced that the boy is guilty. He shows no sign of emotion and is able to recall much of what happened throughout the trial. He gets nervous though, as he cannot recall a certain movie he saw the other night, just as the boy could not do the same. Juror five (Jack Klugman) is a shy man. He lived in a slum all his life and can almost relate to the boy on trial, for he lives in a slum as well. He is an expert at using a switch knife, which comes in handy during the deliberation. Juror six (Edward Binns) is quite during the deliberation. He questions the boys’ motive for wanting to kill his father. Juror seven (Jack Warden) wants the deliberation to be over as quick as possible because he has tickets to a baseball game later that evening. He votes not guilty and does not wish to discuss why or why not. Juror eight (Henry Fonda) votes not guilty from the start of their meeting. He doesn’t know for sure if the boy is not guilty; he just wants to talk about it. He manages to cast reasonable doubt with the jurors on the boy’s innocence based on many aspects of the trial. He remains clam and patient throughout the deliberation. Juror nine (Joseph Sweeney) is an old man. He is the second person to vote not guilty, for he wants to hear more about the case. He is very observant, as he notices something about one of the witness’s during the trial. Juror ten (Ed Begley) is also an angry man. He is racist, and also very prejudice against people who come from a slum, which is why he believes the boy is guilty. Juror eleven (George Voskovec) takes the trial seriously. He stands up for what he believes in. He questions the boy’s actions a lot; such as if he really would have returned the his house three hours after the murder happened. Juror 12 (Robert Webber) is a smart man. He works for an advertising agency and has a hard time explaining his choice for changing his vote to not guilty. During the deliberation, certain parts of the character’s personalities play a part for different concepts. One example is with Juror five. During the trial, the boy was convicted of murdering is father using a switch knife as the weapon and stabbing his father down in the chest. Juror two makes a point on the height difference between the boy and his father, and how the boy would proceed to kill his father, meaning how he would have stabbed him. Juror five explains that he used to play with switch knives when he was around the boy’s age, and knows how to use one. During the trial, it was stated that the boy was an expert at using a switch knife. Juror five goes to demonstrate exactly how the boy would have pulled out the knife and stabbed his father: from underneath. He said it would take too much time to switch hands and stab down in his chest. Without Juror five having the knowledge and his personal characteristic of using a switch knife, the jury would have never learned how an experienced knife handler would have used the weapon. Tactics: In this section we will talk about a few of the tactics that we got the actors/characters using during the film. A few of this tactics were talked about during our class and case studies but some of the tactics were commonly used in everyday negotiations by everyone. We talked about power and how you could use power to get your way; you could use facts against the other party because facts are something you cannot ignore and emotions. Emotions are a hard tactic to master because you need to set aside your emotions so you can make a fair and honest judgment or answer. Power: Juror eight shows power over the other jurors. He has information the other jurors do not know about, and he is able to negotiate with them more. Information power is derived from the negotiator’s ability to assemble and organize facts and data to support his or her position, arguments, or desired outcomes. The other jurors only listened to what was presented in the trial. But Juror eight actually thought about the facts presented, and went out to look for more information. One way he did this was with the knife. The boy had bought the same knife used to kill his father the same night the murder happened. The boy claimed he had lost the knife, as it had fell through his pocket on his way to the movies. The owner of the shop where he had bought the knife claimed it was very unique, and he had never seen any other kind like it in his store. Juror eight asks to see the knife found at the crime scene. Everyone else is convinced this is the same knife the boy had bought, until Juror eight surprises them and pulls out the exact same knife. He says that he went out walking the previous night in the boy’s neighborhood and came across a shop just two blocks away from the boy’s house. He saw the same knife and bought it at a cheap cost. He proved to the other jurors that it is possible the boy could have dropped his knife, because that knife isn’t as unique as the thought. Another part where Juror eight has power is when they are debating about whether or not the old man heard the boy scream â€Å"I’m going to kill you!† According to the testimony, the boy had yelled those words right as the L-Train was passing by the window. Is it possible the old man heard the boy scream that? Juror eight stated that he had lived in an apartment next to the L tracks before and the sound of a train passing by is unbearable. Another juror said he had just finished painting one of the apartments and agreed that the sound is very loud. Juror eight had power over the others for he himself knew that the sound was very loud and it may not be possible the old man heard the boy say these things. Presentation of Facts: The way the facts were presented during the movie were all facts the jurors figured out themselves while deliberating, and not during the trial. There were many unanswered questions during the trial which caused Juror eight to question whether the boy was guilty or not. The defense attorney left out a lot of important information that was uncovered during the jury’s deliberation. One of these facts dealt with the old man who claimed he saw the boy running down the stairs from his apartment. The more the jury talked about the old man and what he said, the more Juror eight questioned if he had really seen the boy or not. One of the jurors pointed out that the man was dragging his left foot behind him, but trying to cover it up because he was ashamed. During the trial, the old man stated he heard a body hit the floor, and someone starting to run. He then said it took him no more than 15 seconds after he heard the body hit the floor to run out of his apartment and to the stairs to witness the boy running down them. Juror 8 thought then if it really could have taken him 15 seconds if he was dragging his left leg. This is when the jurors played out the scene to figure it out themselves. They were able to get a diagram of the apartment and measure out the dimensions of the room they were in. Juror eight walked the length of the room and back, while Juror two timed him. As he approached the end, Juror 2 said it took 41 seconds to walk the length they had measured out. By playing out the scene of the old man, this proved the fact it could not have taken the man 15 seconds, and he could not have seen the boy running down the stairs. Another important fact happened during the very end of the deliberation. At this point, everyone but two people believed the boy was innocent. Juror four says his reasoning for believing the boy is guilty is because of the woman across the street who claims she saw the murder herself. As he is talking, he takes his glasses off and begins rubbing the outside part of his nose where his glasses lay. Juror nine notices this, and asks him why he rubs his nose like that. Juror four says it is from his glasses, that they bother his nose, so he rubs him. Juror nine notices the markings on his nose from his glasses, and recalls the woman had the exact same markings on her face. He then asks Juror four if there is any other possible way to get those same markings on his nose, and he replies no. Juror eight then starts to say that the woman was lying, for she did not see the boy kill his father, for she was trying to fall asleep, and she wouldn’t be wearing her glasses to bed. These two examples show how hidden facts slowly come out. This is information left out from the trial that everyone missed, until now. After proving these statements, the jurors started to have doubt in their minds about the boy. It’s important to look at every aspect in as much detail as possible or you could miss out on something. Sure, the old man can say it took him 15 seconds, but as it turns out, it took him longer than that. And sure, the woman can say she saw the boy kill her father, but really all she saw was a blur, for she did not have her glasses on. You can’t always go by what you hear. You have to dig deeper to discover any hidden information that could help against your situation. This is what Juror eight did and it helped support his case. Also from these two examples, it goes to show that you can’t always believe what you hear. The witness’s both were under oath as they spoke in trial, but they could just be doing that for attention. Juror nine points this out for the old man, as he can relate. He is old and unnoticed. He just wants attention, so he could have made himself believe he saw the old man when he really didn’t. As for the woman and the glasses, she didn’t wear her glasses to the trial because she wanted to upgrade her appearance. So she said she saw the boy, seeing as if she didn’t wear glasses at all, but really she did for she had the markings on her nose. Emotions: Negotiations often evoke a variety of emotions, especially fear and anger. Emotions can cause intense and even irrational behavior, and can cause conflicts to escalate and negotiations to break down. Juror three from the start showed angry signs of emotion throughout the whole deliberation. He stated how he hadn’t seen his son in two years, and all his anger from his son is taken out on the boy on trial. Juror three wants everyone to agree with him. No matter what information is presented, he sticks with his vote of guilty. He gets mad whenever evidence is brought up or someone proves something wrong. His emotions reach a peak whenever Juror eight calls him a sadist. At this point, Juror three lunges toward Juror eight saying â€Å"I’ll kill him!† Then Juror eight replies, â€Å"You don’t really mean you’ll kill me, do you?† This proves his point about how sometimes people say things they really don’t mean. His emotions got the best of him, and he realized that he really wouldn’t kill the juror. Having your emotions from your personal life come into play during a negotiation is not always a good thing. Juror three should not have taken his anger out on the boy or even on Juror eight because of his son. He was angry at his son for leaving, but he should have put that aside for the deliberation. Having your emotions lay out like that on the table can cause you not to think about the important facts that need to be focused on. Juror eight shows emotion in a positive way. He stays very calm throughout the whole deliberation. By showing no sign of angry emotion, this allows him to keep his composure and control of what he is trying to get across. If negotiators feel positively attracted, they are more likely to feel confident and, as a result, to persist in trying to get their concerns and issues addressed in the negotiation and to achieve better outcomes Bias: I’d like to spend some time discussing an issue that I feel is very important to recognize when it comes to negotiations. This is the issue of bias. We had several discussions in class about bias. The thing that most fascinates me about the concept of bias, is that everyone tends to have a different opinion about it. It can be a very grey area, and many people have varying feelings on its presence and its effect on people’s behavior. Personally, I feel that it’s impossible to completely eliminate all bias from a situation. Even when looking at something objectively, bias still exists. It comes from personal characteristics, experiences, and opinions. This movie does a great job of showing how bias can have an effect on negotiations. I’d like to cite an example from the film regarding juror number ten. This juror is an old man who is very set in his ways. He is among the eleven jurors who found the boy guilty of murder. However, his reason for voting guilty comes from a very different place than the others. The evidence seems to favor a guilty vote, but the film shows us that this gentleman’s vote was sealed the minute he learned the boy was from a slum. During the deliberations, this juror seconds an argument made by a fellow juror. He says, â€Å"Brother, you can say that again. The kids who crawl out of these places are real trash.† Regardless of this evidence, this shows a bias against the boy from the start. This man is allowing his prejudice against â€Å"slum dwellers† to influence his decision about the verdict. The juror across the table then takes offense to this comment. â€Å"I’ve lived in a slum all my life,† says the juror. This should quell the old man’s argument, but it doesn’t. He still feels strongly about his position, even though a man from a similar background clearly hasn’t followed a path that â€Å"trash† might follow. This demonstrates the power of bias. The greatest example of overcoming bias in this film occurs in the very last minutes. By this point, the jury has reached a vote of 11 to 1 for â€Å"not guilty.† The lone juror who still maintains the boy’s guilt is juror number three. This is the man who hasn’t seen his own son in over two years. Earlier in the deliberations, he explained how he and his son got into a fight when the boy was still a teenager. His son hit him, and things were never the same between them. As the talks between the jurors continues, it becomes more and more evident that this man has a bias against the boy on trial because of what transpired with his own boy. He wants to see this boy killed because he resents his own son for what occurred between them. The initial juror who voted â€Å"not guilty† went as far as calling him a â€Å"sadist† and a â€Å"public avenger.† In the final scene, that juror asks the man to defend his arguments one last time. There is a re asonable doubt in the minds of eleven jurors, and he wants to know why there isn’t one in his. Juror number three begins explaining, yelling the entire time. You can see him getting more and more upset as he continues to pour over evidence that the other men have already proven shaky. Finally, he rips up the picture of him and his son that has slid out of his wallet on the table. He then bursts into tears and cries, â€Å"Not guilty, not guilty.† It was clearly painful for him to confront what happened with his son head on like that. This was creating his bias the entire time. When the evidence appeared to support the boy’s guilt, his bias was less prevalent. But when the evidence that started out convincing ended up being questionable, his bias began to show. He still wanted the boy to be found guilty because of it. This really makes you wonder how often this occurs in the real world. How many innocent men and women have been sent to jail because of biased members of a perceived â€Å"impartial† jury? It’s an imperfect system, dealing with a very i nexact science. Recognizing this is very important. From this course, and from analyzing this film, I have strengthened my belief that bias can’t be eliminated. All a negotiator can do is recognize that bias is constant, and do their best to minimize its effect on their decision making process. If a negotiator recognizes this, they can do more negotiating based on facts and figures rather than personal biases and opinions. Power and Persuasion: An interesting aspect of this movie, as it continues to relate to this course, is the use of power and persuasion. What I find most interesting about power, is the myriad of ways through which it may be obtained. In class, we discussed several ways that power is obtained, and also how it can be used. In this movie, there are many circumstances where the jurors attempt to use power to persuade one another. Perhaps the most prevalent example at an attempt to use power to persuade the others is shown by juror number three. This juror often exudes power when talking down the case with the man who hasn’t turned in a â€Å"guilty† verdict. He begins by explaining all of the evidence again. He discusses the old man who claims he heard the boy, the old lady who says she saw the boy, and the knife discovered by the police who arrived at the murder scene. He is very confident in this evidence, and feels as though he has the power because of it. After taking this course, I find that this is the best way to gain power in a negotiation. The more information you have to support your argument, the more power you have. In turn, this often results in achieving your goals in the negotiation. However, as the process continues, the juror voting â€Å"not guilty† starts to sway the room. The oldest man on the jury is the first to change his vote. The juror from the slums changes his vote not long after that. As this is happening, it appears that juror number three feels as though he is losing power in this negotiation. To counter this, he begins raising his voice when talks. Before long, he is all but yelling at the other jurors who have changed their votes. He attempts to retain his power through intimidation once he sees that the evidence, which he thought was solid, is shown to be shaky and imprecise. Another example of how power is used to persuade others in this film is demonstrated by the stock broker, otherwise known as juror number four. It appears that this juror feels an immediate sense of power in this scenario because he is one of the most, if not the most, accomplished gentleman of the group. He feels that he is probably the most intelligent man on this jury, and demonstrates that when talks. He recalls much of the information from the trial very accurately, and with no notes. He also explains very clearly why he feels the way he feels. Power through intellectual superiority can be very persuasive, and influential. The man he is attempting to persuade does a very good job of keeping his composure. He doesn’t challenge the broker’s power. In fact, he affirms it. He appears to respect that the juror is making valid points and supporting his argument. He goes a different route. He simply takes an issue and asks, â€Å"Is it possible?† While the other jurors refute this claim, the broker remains quiet. As the man slowly begins to disprove some of the testimony from the case, you can see the broker questioning his verdict more intently. Finally, he changes his vote to not guilty. This is where everything turns. The other jurors picked up on the quiet power exuded by the broker, and respected it all along. Once he turned in a â€Å"not guilty† vote, it was only a matter of time before the others joined him. This is convincing tell that this man had a great deal of power in this negotiation. In a less successful attempt to gain power, the angry old man attempts to convince the man of the boy’s guilt through a â€Å"power in numbers† technique. He feels very comfortable with his verdict of â€Å"guilty† because the others feel the same way. During the initial discussions in the deliberation room, he continuously says, â€Å"You know what I mean?† This is an attempt to keep others on his side while he tries to persuade the rogue juror to vote â€Å"guilty.† He feels he has power in this negotiation because he has the majority on his side. This is a common tactic in negotiations. As the film progresses and more and more jurors change their verdict, you can easily see the power leaving the angry old man. He is forced to confront his prejudice and accept that he was wrong. When he is no longer in the majority, his sense of power quickly fades. He becomes defensive and weak as more and more people leave his side. This is most prevalent in the scene where he attempts to defend his â€Å"guilty† vote one last time. He stands up, and continues yelling and shouting his narrow minded opinions, much as he’d done the entire time. His arguments, now more than ever, are being entirely disregarded, and for good reason. Each point he is making is based solely on prejudice. He thinks he is powerful, but nothing he is saying is based on fact, or really has anything to do with the case. One by one, the other jurors begin getting up from the table and ignoring him. Even the juror who was consistently making wise cracks during the deliberations is looking away from him. Soon, no one in the room is backing him. He then retires to the corner, alone. He not only lost the majority, he lost the support of the other men who were still turning in a â€Å"guilty† vote. This is a great example of power shifting, which we discussed in class. You asked us if it’s possible for power to shift during a negotiation, and this is a good demonstration of how it can. Works Cited: Ang, S., Van Dyne, L., & Koh, C.K.S. (2006). Personality correlates of the four factor model of cultural intelligence. Group and Organization Management, 31, 100-123. Diamond, S. (2010). Getting More: How to Negotiate to Achieve Your Goals in the Real World. New York City, NY: Crown Publishing Group. Earley, P.C., & Ang, S. (2003). Cultural intelligence: Individual interactions across cultures. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press. Gates, S. (2011). The Negotiation Book: Your Definitive Guide To Successful Negotiating (1st ed.). United Kingdom, UK: John Wiley and Sons LTD. Shell , R. G. (2006). Bargaining for Advantage: Negotiation Strategies for Reasonable People 2nd Edition (2nd ed.). New York City, NY: The Penguin Group. Thompson, L. L. (2008). The Truth About Negotiations . Upper Saddle River, NJ: FT Press.

Embryonic Stem Cell Research is Morally and Medically Ethical Essay

Introduction Issue ( Background)   Science and technology have opened many doors of progress in all areas of business.   On such area far exceeds mere business and industry and touches upon human life itself.   The medical community has reached a point where it can quite possibly create new and healthy cells and organs to replace those that are damaged.   This process is made possible through embryonic stem cell research (ESCR). Embryonic stem cells, as suggested by the name are extracted from embryos that have been fertilized in a laboratory setting for use by sterile couples and then, for whatever reason, are donated for research.   These cells are about five days old (Stem Cell Basics).   The cells are then developed and grown in a culture medium and shipped to other laboratories for further research. These stem cells are special because they can be converted through genetic manipulation to be any type of cell desired. â€Å"To generate cultures of specific types of differentiated cells—heart muscle cells, blood cells, or nerve cells, for example—scientists try to control the differentiation of embryonic stem cells. They change the chemical composition of the culture medium, alter the surface of the culture dish, or modify the cells by inserting specific genes† (Stem Cell Basics).   The benefit of this process is that these new healthy cells can be used to replace defective or diseased cells in individuals, in effect curing them of certain ailments. Conflict, c. Stance and d. Enthymeme The controversy with this particular procedure stems from the fact that extracting these cells effectively kills the developing embryo, called at this stage a zygote.   Those who believe that these cells constitute a human being, liken the process of extracting stem cells to abortion and murder (Robinson).   Those that do not believe this way see the major medical benefits as outweighing the death of an unwanted and unused zygote.   Most of the arguments against ESCR are religious in nature while those that favor it are following pragmatic and realistic processes.   In light of the medically invaluable information and hope it provides, embryonic stem cell research should legally continue with full funding from the federal government.   II. Grounds  Ã‚   Even as focus has turned toward adult stem cell research, ESCR remains the most valuable and efficient way of utilizing stem cells for medical purposes.   In 2005, the United Kingdom announced that it was considering opening a stem cell bank using embryonic stem cells.   Its research team at the University of Cambridge found that only 150 human embryos would be needed to created genetic material for approximately two-thirds of the population.   The bank hopes to use these cells to replace â€Å"diseased or damaged tissue in conditions such as diabetes and neurodegenerative disorders† (Lita). Embryonic stem cells can help treat neurological disorders such as Parkinson’s and endocrinal disorders such as diabetes.   Embryonic stem cells can be transformed into dopamine-producing neurons because these stem cells can be transformed into virtually any body cell including nerve cells and pancreatic cells.   These cells can then begin producing dopamine or insulin as the case may be. (Kennell). Victims of spinal cord injuries may soon be able to regain motor control as the result of ESCR.   Preliminary research shows that it is possible to train embryonic stem cells to retrace neuro-motor pathways.   Douglas Kerr, M.D., Ph.D. of Johns Hopkins University notes that â€Å"This is proof of the principle that we can recapture what happens in early stages of motor neuron development and use that to repair damaged nervous systems†Ã‚   (Embryonic Stem Cells Repair Latent Motor Nerve). III. Warrant Despite its proven medical capabilities and hope for many other medical uses, ESCR has found virulent opposition from conservatives and the religious community.   Their arguments hinge on the use of a living human being as fodder for medical experimentation.   These arguments are suspect, even flawed, for several reasons, both philosophical and biological. Generally speaking, the more practical and pragmatic medical argument must be valued over the religious beliefs of some. First, many will argue for the analogy between ESCR and murder.   Many differences exist.   As stated earlier, the zygote in question is only five days old.   In no way could this particular cluster of cells contain life at this point – only the potential for life, which is basically the case whenever a woman and a man have intercourse.   Lawyers from the National Institute of Health agree, noting that â€Å"stem cells are incapable of growing into a complete person. They may be coaxed to develop into nerve cells or heart cells. But, at most, they can become an organ, not a complete living person. They cannot be considered a form of human life, even within the definition of pro-life supporters† (Robinson). Doctors even give biological explanations for this conclusion:     Ã¢â‚¬Å"Human embryos are defined as human organisms derived by fertilization from one or more gametes or diploid cells. Pluripotent stem cells are specialized subpopulation of cells capable of developing into most (ectoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm), but not all, human tissue and may be derived from human embryos†Ã‚   (Chesney).   Medically, even the cells are not the same. However, the zygotes are being stored indefinitely at in-vitro fertilization clinics.   For example, in the United States are over 350 fertility clinics that offer the in-vitro fertilization process.   When a women submits herself to the procedure, about 25 ova are removed from her body and fertilized with her husband’s (or other donor’s) sperm.   Only 2-4 of the embryos are used in the fertilization procedure and the rest are frozen in liquid nitrogen to save for later use.   Generally, these remaining 20 or so embryos stay in the clinic indefinitely.   Few couples use them all, and even fewer agree to donate them to other infertile couples. Many embryos die due to changes in temperature or movement, and some clinics even throw the excess embryos away or use them in training staff (Robinson).   The birth control pill blocks a fertilized ovum from implanting as does an intrauterine device (IUD).   These two devices, along with discarding the embryos or using them for training, also affect the potential for life but are not so reviled.   Moreover, the embryos’ ‘owners’ must always give consent to use these embryos for research; nobody is tricked during this process (Robinson). Basically, if these cells are not used for ESCR, they will ultimately be used for nothing. Second, many opponents argue that adult stem cell research (ASCR) could replace ESCR and save the embryos.   This is not yet the case, if it ever will be.   First of all, the nature of the stem cells are different in adults and in embryos.   Embryonic stem cells are more flexible and can become virtually any cell of any organ or tissue in the body.   Adult stem cells are much more limited and cannot even be found in many organs or tissues in the body. Moreover, adult stems cells are limited in number, even considered ‘minute’ in quantity and are very hard to identify.   Embryonic stem cells are easy to identify and exist in large, usable numbers.   Most importantly, embryonic stem cells are virtually blank, making them easy to manipulate into other tissues.   Adult stem cells can contain genetic defects or â€Å"DNA errors caused by replication or exposure to toxins† (Cohen). ESCR has been the focus of scientist for nearly two decades while ASCR has just begun to get some notice.   Because of the emergence of ASCR, the opponents want to completely ban ESCR, not understanding that it is the reason that ASCR is even possible.   However, because of the religious issues, ASCR is being forced into the limelight while ESCR has lost funding. As a result, Dr. Helen Blau, ironically an adult stem cell researcher at the Stanford University, argues that she feels â€Å"strongly we need embryonic stem cells. The answers are not just going to come from the adult stem cells and it would be extremely short-sighted to shift completely to just adult stem cells† (Cohen).   While adult stem cells may provide promise in the future, their use in the present is simply not as lucrative or promising as those of embryonic stem cells at this point in time. Backing and V. Conditions of rebuttal Most arguments in opposition to ESCR originate in the religious realm.   Dr. Dr. David Prentice,   professor of life sciences at Indiana State University and founder of Do No Harm, The Coalition of Americans for Research Ethics notes precisely this when he asserts, â€Å"The root of the debate really comes down to the ethical question of what’s the moral status of a human embryo.   Is it a person or is it a piece of property? And obviously we have no consensus on that in this country and I think that means we should not use taxpayer funds to fund this type of research†Ã‚   (Cohen). Yet, historically, this religious realm, when mixed with federal forces, has been squelched in other instances.   For example, removing the ten commandments from federal buildings, denying prayer in school, and eliminate swearing under God to affirming under oath in courtroom proceedings are just a few of the ways that the government has attempted to separate the church and the state.   Why is the religious conservative view allowed to proliferate here when it is not allowed to do so in other instances? Similarly, the force of this religious surge against ESCR is the loss of life.   While the beginning moment of human life is hugely debatable, does ESCR not also promote life?   Lawyers and medical ethicists in favor of ESCR note that â€Å"Stem cells have an enormous promise to benefit mankind — to save lives and cure or treat diseases. This generates a very strong moral imperative to explore their potential† (Robinson). Similarly, the conservative and religious opposition seems to even contradict their own opinion by not voicing concern about in-vitro fertilization clinics in general.   As noted above, clinics routinely destroy abandoned embryos by flushing them down drains, incinerating them, or exposing them to room temperature†Ã‚   (Hall).   Basically, unused, destroyed embryos number in the hundreds of thousands in fertility clinics across the country, but these clinics are not subjected to the political manipulation that ESCR is, which only uses a dozen or two embryos in the clinical setting. Furthermore, the â€Å"parents† of these embryos are never challenged.   The donors get to decide the fate of their unused embryos.   The choices are to leave them to the use of the clinic, to donate them or to destroy them.   Dr. Carl Herbert, president of the San Francisco Fertility Centers, notes that while this loss may seem harsh, it simply mimics the natural reproductive cycle. He points out that Out of all the embryos created by sexual intercourse, roughly 3 out of 4 do not last long enough to produce a baby. About half of the fertilized eggs are lost even before the woman misses her first period following conception† (Hall).   Dr. Marcelle Cedars, a fertility specialist at the University of California at San Francisco’s IVF clinic agrees.   He argues that it is â€Å"unrealistic to expect technology to do much better at preserving the lives of early-stage embryos. Human reproduction is a very inefficient process and it is difficult to afford a higher status to embryos than nature does† (Hall). Qualifier Of course nobody wants to believe that a promising medical science field could be corrupt or greedy.   Even ESCR should operate under certain moral guidelines. In no way should an embryo ever be used in any way except by that to which its donor consents.   In addition, donors should not create embryos for the sheer purpose to sell them to clinics, as the process should result as a by-product of extra embryos create for potential implantation and not create any additional embryos not for that purpose.   Finally, tricking or deceiving individuals into donating embryos or withholding information about their use would also be morally wrong. VII. Conclusion ESCR is not the enemy of the moral fiber of the United States.   It is a medically promising procedure that does not violate any right to life laws.   Religious opposition to certain issues will always exist, but in recent history, it has not been allowed in interfere with federal political, social or educational decision-making.   Clearly other possibilities and alternatives to ESCR may arise, but until these options are as viable as ESCR, they should not be allowed to interfere with the medical promise of this type of research. Works Cited Chesney, Russell et al. American Academy of Pediatrics, Human Embryo Research Committee   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   on Pediatric Research and Committee on Bioethics.   Pediatrics 108 (3), 3 Sept. 2001:     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   813-816.   Retrieved 1 April 2008 from   http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/ full/pediatrics;108/3/813 Cohen, Elizabeth.   Adult stem cells or embryonic? Scientists differ.   CNN.com/Health.   10   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   August 2001.     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Retrieved 1 April 2008 from http://archives.cnn.com/2001/HEALTH/ 08/09/stem.cell.alternative/ Embryonic Stem Cells Repair Latent Motor Nerve.   Science Daily. 28 June 2006. Retrieved 1   Ã‚   April 2008 from http://stemcell.taragana.net/archive/embryonic-stem-cells-repair-latent-  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   motor-nerve/ Hall, Carl T. â€Å"The forgotten embryo: Fertility clinics must store or destroy the surplus that is part   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   of the process.†   SF Gate News.   20 Aug. 2001. at: http://www.sfgate.com/ Kennell, David.   The promise of stem cell research. People’s Weekly World Newspapers.   29   Ã‚   July 2006.   Retrieved 1 April 2006 from http://www.pww.org/article/articleview/9582/1/332 Lita, Ana.   Embryonic Stem Cell Research: New Developments and Controversies.   MedBioWorld.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   10 October 2006.   Retrieved 1 April 2008 from http://www.medbioworld.com/ postgenomics_blog/?p=138 Robinson, B.A. Human Stem Cells – Ethical Concerns.   Religious Tolerance.   17 Oct. 2002.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Retrieved 1 April 2008 from http://www.religioustolerance.org/res_stem2.htm   Ã¢â‚¬Å"Stem Cell Basics.†Ã‚   The National Institutes of Health.   20 Feb. 2008.   Retrieved 1 April 2008 from http://stemcells.nih.gov/info/basics/basics3.asp